In this article, I demonstrate:
- difference between dynamic scoping and lexical scoping in Emacs Lisp
- what to watch out for with dynamic scoping
- what you can do with lexical scoping and lexical closures
- what happens when you mix lexical scoping code and dynamic scoping code
Emacs Lisp is always dynamically scoped in Emacs 23 and below. Support for lexical scoping is added to Emacs 24. Nice because many agree that lexical scoping makes more sense in most cases than dynamic scoping does. You’ll see why soon in this article. If you have an el file that you want to load with lexical scoping, you can add -*- lexical-binding: t -*- as the first line, then when Emacs 24 loads the file, it will apply lexical scoping to the code in that el file. For example, the first line of my current init file is
;; -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
and if I change that line to
;; -*- coding: utf-8; lexical-binding: t -*-
then the code in my init file will be lexically scoped in Emacs 24. See file variables.
To experiment with lexical scoping, first create an empty el file (C-x C-f lexical-scratch.el RET) and add this line:
;; -*- lexical-binding: t -*-
and save it, and then revert the buffer (M-x revert-buffer). Now you can use the buffer as a sort of scratch buffer with lexical scoping on.
What are dynamic scoping and lexical scoping? Let’s take a look at a simple example code.
(setq a 17)
(defun my-print-a ()
(print a))
(setq a 1717)
(let ((a 8))
(my-print-a))
Notice that the value of a is not specified within my-print-a, making it what some call a “free variable“. What will be the result of running the code above? Will it print 1717? Or is it going to be 8? With dynamic scoping, it prints 8. With lexical scoping, it prints 1717. With dynamic scoping, what the name a in my-print-a refers to is determined by when my-print-a is called. With lexical scoping, it is determined by where my-print-a is defined.
With dynamic scoping, the code prints 8 because by the time my-print-a is called, we’re are in the let form which locally binds a to 8. If you call my-print-a after the let form, it will print 1717.
With lexical scoping, the code prints 1717 because, first, where my-print-a is defined is outside of the let form, so a in my-print-a refers to the global binding for a (binding or associating the name a to a memory location), not the local binding created by the let form, and second, by the time my-print-a is called, the global value of a is 1717, which is separate from the local value of a being 8. If you move the definition of my-print-a into the let form, the printed value will be 8 because then a in my-print-a will refer to the local binding for a created by the let form.
If you know JavaScript, an equivalent code in JavaScript is
var a;
a = 17;
function myPrintA() {
console.log(a);
}
a = 1717;
(function () {
var a = 8;
myPrintA();
}());
That will print 1717. Most programming languages are lexically scoped these days.
If you are using Emacs 24, you can test if my example in lexical scoping actually prints 1717 by running the following code in the scratch buffer.
(eval
'(progn
(setq a 17)
(defun my-print-a ()
(print a))
(setq a 1717)
(let ((a 8))
(my-print-a)))
t)
The function eval in Emacs 24 takes a second argument (optional), and if that is t, eval evaluates using lexical scoping. Don’t forget the quote ' in front of (progn ...).
Lexical scoping makes lexical closures possible. What are lexical closures? Let’s see with the following code.
(setq a 0)
(let ((a 17))
(defun my-print-a ()
(print a))
(setq a 1717))
(let ((a 8))
(my-print-a))
With lexical scoping, above prints 1717. Here’s what Alice thought about above:
At first, that’s not strange. But if you look at that code again, something’s strange. At first, I thought “This is lexical scoping, so the name a in the body of my-print-a refers to the local binding for a created by the first let form. So 1717 should be printed” but then I looked again. By the time my-print-a is called, that local binding created by the first let form is supposed to have expired! You never drink expired milk! Why is 1717 printed instead of “Sorry, I don’t exist anymore.”? Why is lexical scope resolution of a working without error even when it shouldn’t?
The first local binding for a somehow survives even after the first let form is exited and waits for my-print-a to access it. The first local binding for a expired for all purposes except for my-print-a‘s access. That must mean that Emacs manages things behind so that lexical scoping works even better than it “should”.
So what is a lexical closure? This relates to how “lexical scoping working even better” is implemented behind the scenes. The function cell of my-print-a contains a link to the relevant expired binding for a, as you can see by evaluating (symbol-function 'my-print-a). This combination of the function definition and the link to the scope at the time the function was created is called a lexical closure. Or you can call any lexically scoped function accessing an expired binding a lexical closure. Lexical closures are often simply called closures. Not all lexically scoped languages support closures.
In lexical scoping, when you want to see what a variable in a function body refers to, you just look around where the function body is placed in the code text and find the relevant binding. That’s why lexical scoping is easy to wrap our heads around, because all we have to do to is look around where the variable is written in the code text, and we don’t even have to worry about when the relevant binding expires.
Anyway, an equivalent code in JavaScript:
var a, myPrintA;
a = 0;
(function () {
// local variable a
var a = 17;
myPrintA = function () {
console.log(a);
};
a = 1717;
}());
(function () {
// local variable a
var a = 8;
myPrintA();
}());
That will print 1717 because JavaScript supports lexical closures.
In Emacs 24, lexically scoped (interpreted) functions are represented by a form of function value that looks like (closure ENV ARGS BODY...) while dynamically scoped functions are represented by a form of function value that looks like (lambda ARGS BODY...), the same form you use to write an anonymous function in Emacs Lisp. The following code prints (lambda (x y) (+ x y)) twice in dynamic scoping.
(defun my-sum (x y)
(+ x y))
;; print the contents of function cell of my-sum
(print (symbol-function 'my-sum))
;; print an anonymous function
(print (lambda (x y) (+ x y)))
That prints (closure (t) (x y) (+ x y)) twice in lexical scoping. It seems that (lambda ...) evaluates to itself in dynamic scoping, while it evaluates to (closure ...) in lexical scoping.
Now onto the nesting. In lexical scoping, when function A defines function B and function B defines function C and function C prints a, what that a should refer to is first searched within C, and if not found, then search continues within B (which is where C is defined), and so on.
In the case of dynamic scoping, let’s say we have a function named my-func1 that calls another function my-func2 that calls my-func3 that prints a. Say my-func2 locally sets a to 2 when calling my-func3. What happens when we call my-func1 in dynamic scoping? It prints 2. What if we call my-func1 in an environment where a is 1? It still prints 2 instead of 1. Test with the following code.
(defun my-func1 ()
(my-func2))
(defun my-func2 ()
(let ((a 2))
(my-func3)))
(defun my-func3 ()
(print a))
(let ((a 1))
(my-func1))
What’s happening is that while a local binding for a to 1 is active, my-func1 is called, then my-func1 calls my-func2, going deeper. my-func2 establishes another local binding for a which shadows the former binding for a to 1. At that point, it’s as if we are in the spot X in (let ((a 1)) (let ((a 2)) X )). It’s at that point that my-func3 is called. So 2 is printed.
There is one nasty gotcha you should know about dynamic scoping. Let’s say you want to use a function that takes a function as an argument. Let me give you a simple example of such a function.
(defun my-call (f n)
(funcall f n))
(my-call #'1+ 5) ; => 6
(my-call #'oddp 5) ; => t
(dolist (i (list 1 2 3))
(print
(my-call (lambda (x) (* i x)) 5))) ; prints 5 10 15
Nothing surprising so far. Here we go.
(dolist (n (list 1 2 3))
(print
(my-call (lambda (x) (* n x)) 5))) ; prints 25 25 25 in dynamic scoping.
What’s going on? Why is it doing that? The problem is that the name n used in (lambda (x) (* n x)) is also one of the argument names of my-call. The anonymous function (lambda (x) (* n x)) is called inside my-call where n, as an argument, is bound to 5. In lexical scoping, the above code prints 5 10 15 as expected.
Gotcha 1 – Passing a dynamically scoped function as an argument to another function can get you!
Another gotcha. Try to define a function that takes two functions f and g and returns a composed function that is equivalent to applying g first and then f.
;; in dynamic scoping
(defun my-compose (f g)
(lambda (x)
(funcall f (funcall g x))))
(funcall
(my-compose (lambda (n) (+ n 3)) (lambda (n) (+ n 20)))
100) ; results in error, Lisp error: (void-variable f)
The error says f is not defined. Why? The composed function is created in my-compose, but is called in a different place where f and g are not bound. Again, in lexical scoping, the above code works as you expect.
Gotcha 2 – Using a function returned from a dynamically scoped function can get you.
In Emacs 24, defvar creates things called special variables. Special variables are dynamically scoped variables that will be bound dynamically even in lexically scoped functions. case-fold-search is an example of a special variable. Case sensitivity of the function search-forward depends on the value of the special variable case-fold-search. (search-forward "hello") matches HELLO when case-fold-search is t, while it doesn’t when case-fold-search is nil. Let’s say you define your own function my-search-forward maybe with some additional features in your lexically scoped el file, and my-search-forward also uses case-fold-search to decide case sensitivity. Because case-fold-search is a special variable, when you call
(let ((case-fold-search t))
(my-search-forward "hello"))
you can be certain that the search will be case insensitive.
You can use the function special-variable-p to check if a variable is special.
(special-variable-p 'print-level) ; => t
(special-variable-p 'print-length) ; => t
(special-variable-p 'debug-on-error) ; => t
(special-variable-p 'debug-on-quit) ; => t
Special variables can be useful. gsg on reddit said:
Dynamic scope allows you to parameterise code without having to pass an explicit parameter. It’s not a good default, but some kinds of code do benefit from it.
kragensitaker said:
Thread-local variables, exception handlers, the current locale, and the current clipping region and image transform are some examples of things that it makes sense to scope dynamically.
Now let’s see what we can do with lexical closures.
Run the following code in lexical scoping.
(let (c)
(defun my-get-c ()
c)
(defun my-set-c (new-c)
(setq c new-c))
(defun my-add-to-c (x)
(setq c (+ x c))))
Then run the following code that use the three functions. The result is the same whether you run it with lexical scoping or not, because lexically scoped functions called in a dynamically scoped environment are still lexically scoped functions.
(my-set-c 10)
(my-add-to-c 5)
(print (my-get-c)) ; prints 15.
(my-add-to-c 1)
(print (my-get-c)) ; prints 16
(let ((c 0))
(print c) ; prints 0
(print (my-get-c))) ; prints 16.
The binding for c shared by my-get-c, my-set-c, and my-add-to-c acts like a sort of a private variable and is independent of other bindings of the name c such as one in the (let ((c 0)) ...) part. The reason this works is because the binding for c created by the let form surrounding the three defun forms has expired for all purposes except for the three functions’ access.
Now let’s test using lexical closures to do what static variables in C do.
(require 'cl) ; for incf
(eval
'(let ((i 0))
(defun my-counter ()
(prog1
i
(incf i))))
t)
(my-counter) ; => 0
(my-counter) ; => 1
(my-counter) ; => 2
(let ((i 10))
(my-counter)) ; => 3
(my-counter) ; => 4
For those confused as to why the above code works that way, here is a demonstrative example code.
(eval
'(let ((i1 0))
(defun my-test ()
(let ((i2 0))
(prog1
(list i1 i2)
(incf i1)
(incf i2)))))
t)
(my-test) ; => (0 0)
(my-test) ; => (1 0)
(my-test) ; => (2 0)
my-test is defined and then it’s called three times. The let form (let ((i2 0)) ..) in my-test was executed three times my-test was called. On the other hand, the let form (let ((i1 0)) ... ) was executed once and that was when my-test was defined. I hope that helps.
Now let’s test a function that returns functions that are lexical closures.
(eval
'(defun my-get-counter (start step)
(let ((count start))
(lambda ()
(prog1
count
(setq count (+ count step)))))
)
t)
(setq my-get-even-numbers (my-get-counter 0 2)
my-get-odd-numbers (my-get-counter 1 2))
(funcall my-get-even-numbers) ; => 0
(funcall my-get-even-numbers) ; => 2
(funcall my-get-even-numbers) ; => 4
(funcall my-get-odd-numbers) ; => 1
(funcall my-get-odd-numbers) ; => 3
(funcall my-get-odd-numbers) ; => 5
(funcall my-get-even-numbers) ; => 6
(funcall my-get-even-numbers) ; => 8
(setq my-get-even-numbers-2 (my-get-counter 0 2))
(funcall my-get-even-numbers-2) ; => 0
(funcall my-get-even-numbers-2) ; => 2
(funcall my-get-even-numbers-2) ; => 4
(funcall my-get-even-numbers) ; => 10
(funcall my-get-even-numbers) ; => 12
(funcall my-get-even-numbers) ; => 14
You might be wondering why my-get-even-numbers, my-get-odd-numbers and my-get-even-numbers-2 seem to have their own count instead of sharing a single count. They actually have their own count. If you are confused, what if you run the following code with lexical scoping?
(let ((count 0))
(setq my-count
(lambda ()
(prog1
count
(setq count (1+ count))))))
(let ((count 0))
(setq my-count-2
(lambda ()
(prog1
count
(setq count (1+ count))))))
my-count and my-count-2 have their own count. Each of the two let forms enclose each of the two (setq .. (lambda ...)) forms. That’s actually similar to what’s going on with my-get-counter. Each time (my-get-counter ..) is executed, (let ((count ..)) (lambda ..)) is executed again, each creating a new separate binding for count that each new returned function can access. When you execute (my-get-counter ..) three times, (let ((count ..)) (lambda ..)) is executed three times, creating three bindings of count and three returned functions.
Alice now writes all of her new Emacs Lisp code in lexically scoped el files. When lexically scoped new code written by Alice and dynamically scoped old code written by others interact, what will happen? Will things break?
Let’s start with a simple example.
(eval
'(defun my-bah ())
t)
(eval
'(fset 'my-bah-2 (symbol-function 'my-bah))
nil)
The function my-bah is defined in a lexically scoped environment. So it must be a lexically scoped function. What about my-bah-2? Alice says “The function my-bah-2 is defined in a dynamically scoped environment. So it must be a dynamically scoped function.” On the other hand, Bob says “What is in the function cell of my-bah is copied to the function cell of my-bah-2. The function cell of my-bah contains a lexically scoped function. What is in the function cell of my-bah-2 should be the same lexically scoped function.” Alice says “Wait. These functions do nothing. Let’s make them do something. Let’s make them tell us whether they are lexically scoped by their return values.” The following code returns t in a lexically scoped environment, nil otherwise. Checking the value of lexical-binding instead here is a bad idea.
(let ((x nil)
(f (let ((x t)) (lambda () x))))
(funcall f))
Alice modifies the my-bah & my-bah-2 code.
(eval
'(defun my-bah ()
(let ((x nil)
(f (let ((x t)) (lambda () x))))
(funcall f)))
t)
(eval
'(fset 'my-bah-2 (symbol-function 'my-bah))
nil)
Let’s see if my-bah-2 is a lexically scoped function.
(my-bah) ; => t
(my-bah-2) ; => t
So Bob guessed right? Let’s test a similar code that does not use defun.
(eval
'(setq my-nah
(lambda ()
(let ((x nil)
(f (let ((x t)) (lambda () x))))
(funcall f))))
t)
(eval
'(setq my-nah-2 my-nah)
nil)
(funcall my-nah) ; => t
(funcall my-nah-2) ; => t
When you run (setq abc (+ 1 1)), the expression (+ 1 1) describing a sum is evaluated first, and then the evaluation result 2, a number, is assigned to the variable abc. Likewise, when you run (setq my-nah (lambda ...)), the expression (lambda ...) describing an anonymous function is evaluated first. In lexical scoping, the evaluation result is something that looks like (closure ....), a lexically scoped function value. Then that result (closure ....) is assigned to the variable my-nah.
When you run (setq abc (+ 1 1)) and then run (setq abc-2 abc), evaluation of the expression (+ 1 1) happens only once. The statement (setq abc-2 abc) does not evaluate (+ 1 1) again, it just saves the already computed result 2 to abc-2. What it does evaluate is the symbol abc itself, and the symbol abc evaluates to 2. Likewise, in the my-nah & my-nah-2 example code, evaluation of the expression (lambda ...) happens only once and the result (closure ...) is not evaluated when you run (setq my-nah-2 my-nah), it is simply saved to my-nah-2. Even though (setq my-nah-2 my-nah) is run in a dynamically scoped environment, because evaluation of the anonymous function expression happens in a lexically scoped environment, the variable my-nah-2 ends up holding a lexically scoped function.
A lexically scoped function is created and it gets passed around in a dynamically scoped environment, and the function remains a lexically scoped function.
The defun my-bah example is similar. The function cell of the symbol my-bah holds a lexically scoped function, which simply gets passed around. Check with the following test.
(print my-nah-2)
(print (symbol-function 'my-bah-2))
So when you have a defun in a lexically scoped el file, to see the meaning of free variables names in it, you just look around them in the el file, regardless of whether that function gets another name in a dynamically scoped file.
Now that my-nah-2 & my-bah-2 example is understood, let’s revisit my-get-counter. As long as (defun my-get-counter ...) is in a lexically scoped el file, functions returned by my-get-counter are lexically scoped. Let’s see.
(eval
'(progn
(setq my-get-even-numbers (my-get-counter 0 2))
(print (funcall my-get-even-numbers))
(print (funcall my-get-even-numbers))
(print (funcall my-get-even-numbers)))
nil)
That prints 0 2 4. Alice’s argument repeated here would be like “The function my-get-even-numbers is defined in a dynamically scoped environment. So why is it acting like a lexically scoped function?” The variable my-get-even-numbers ends up holding a lexically scoped function for the same reason my-nah-2 does. In case you are confused, let’s get our head around my-get-sum first.
(defun my-get-sum (x y)
(+ x y))
(+ x y) in my-get-sum is an expression describing a sum and my-get-sum returns the result of evaluation of (+ x y), not the expression (+ x y) itself. When you run (my-get-sum 1 2), it does not return the literal expression (+ x y), it returns 3, which is what (+ x y) evaluated to inside my-get-sum.
Back to my-get-counter. (lambda ...) in my-get-counter is an expression describing an anonymous function. That expression is evaluated once inside my-get-counter. The result of its evaluation is something that looks like (closure ...) which is immediately returned and gets stored in the variable my-get-even-numbers. Evaluation of the (lambda ...) happens only once and that happens inside the lexically scoped function my-get-counter. Evaluation of a lambda form inside a lexically scoped function always results in (closure ...). That is how my-get-even-numbers ends up holding a lexically scoped function.
By the way, lexically scoped functions can create and return a dynamically scoped function if the evaluation of a lambda form is somehow avoided maybe unintentionally.
(eval
'(defun my-return-dynamically-scoped-function ()
(list 'lambda '() 'a)
)
t)
(eval
'(defun my-return-dynamically-scoped-function ()
'(lambda () a) ; quoted lambda
)
t)
I don’t know why anybody would do that intentionally, but it can be done.
Now let’s revisit the my-call example.
(eval
'(defun my-call (f n)
(funcall f n))
nil)
(eval
'(dolist (n (list 1 2 3))
(print
(my-call (lambda (x) (* n x)) 5)))
t)
That prints 5 10 15. Alice argument repeated would be “The function f is defined in a dynamically scoped environment. So why is it acting like a lexically scoped function?”. The anonymous functions to be passed to my-call are defined in a lexically scoped environment, so it stays as a lexically scoped function even after it is passed to my-call. In case you are still confused, the (lambda ...) is evaluated and then its result is passed to my-call. my-call stores the result to its local variable f. So f ends up referring to a lexically scoped function.
The function mapcar* is like my-call in that it accepts a function as an argument and is defined in a dynamically scoped el file (for now). The following dynamic scoping gotcha example is from some StackOverflow answer.
(let ((cl-x 10))
(mapcar* (lambda (elt) (* cl-x elt)) '(1 2 3)))
The name cl-x is also used as an argument name in the definition of mapcar*. So running the code above in a dynamically scoped environment leads to a surprise (Gotcha 1). But when you run the code in a lexically scoped environment, it works fine, because lexically scoped anonymous functions passed to mapcar* stays as lexically scoped functions.
Judging by these examples, it seems that lexically scoped code blend in well. Time to go forth and enjoy lexical scoping!
